In the target sights-culling programs influence spatiotemporal avoidance behavior of female sika deer

The impact of hunting can result in ungulates exhibiting a variety of avoidance behaviors. However, spatiotemporal information on hunters and ungulates, which is necessary to establish population control programs, is limited. Our study aimed to evaluate the impacts of culling pressure on the spatiotemporal avoidance behavior of female sika deer. We conducted camera trap surveys from May to November each year in 2019-2022 and investigated the influences of anthropogenic and topographic factors on the diurnal and nocturnal photographic frequencies of females. The findings of this study suggested that the logarithm of the accumulated culling intensity of gun culling, rather than trap culling, had a negative impact on the photographic frequency of sika deer females during daytime. In addition, females were photographed more frequently during the daytime by cameras in larger distances from the walking path and its entrance, suggesting that they also exhibited distinct spatiotemporal avoidance behavior in response to tourism. Therefore, during the daytime, females recognized anthropogenic disturbances and avoided risk-prone areas. Consequently, wildlife managers need to establish population control programs that make it difficult for ungulates to make spatiotemporal predictions regarding hunting activities.