A Review of Rare Earth Elements Recovery from Bastnaesite Ore: From Beneficiation to Metallurgical Processing

Rare earth elements (REEs) have become essential components of clean energy technologies, driving the transition toward a carbon-neutral and digitized future. Among REE-bearing minerals, bastnaesite is a key source of high-demand REEs, such as neodymium and praseodymium. Over the years, significant efforts have been made to develop robust and efficient methods for recovering REEs from bastnaesite ores. This review paper comprehensively examines the entire bastnaesite processing chain, from beneficiation to metallurgical treatment. It examines various techniques for concentrating bastnaesite minerals, including comminution, flotation, gravity separation, and magnetic separation, while providing insights into their underlying mechanisms. Moreover, the review highlights the critical interplay between beneficiation and subsequent metallurgical processes by analyzing the key properties of bastnaesite concentrates and their influence on downstream metallurgical treatment. A range of metallurgical techniques for REE recovery from bastnaesite concentrate is reviewed, with emphasis on established methods such as roasting, caustic digestion, and leaching. The review also explores recent technological advances in this field, including mechanochemical treatment, microwave heating, and the use of ionic liquids, particularly regarding their potential to improve both process efficiency and sustainability. Finally, the paper identifies key challenges and explores new directions for developing sustainable and resilient bastnaesite processing technologies.