Identifying stigmatizing and positive/preferred language in obstetric clinical notes using natural language processing

Objective: To identify stigmatizing language in obstetric clinical notes using natural language processing (NLP). Materials and methods: We analyzed electronic health records from birth admissions in the Northeast United States in 2017. We annotated 1771 clinical notes to generate the initial gold standard dataset. Annotators labeled for exemplars of 5 stigmatizing and 1 positive/preferred language categories. We used a semantic similarity-based search approach to expand the initial dataset by adding additional exemplars, composing an enhanced dataset. We employed traditional classifiers (Support Vector Machine, Decision Trees, and Random Forest) and a transformer-based model, ClinicalBERT (Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers) and BERT base. Models were trained and validated on initial and enhanced datasets and were tested on enhanced testing dataset. Results: In the initial dataset, we annotated 963 exemplars as stigmatizing or positive/preferred. The most frequently identified category was marginalized language/identities (n = 397, 41%), and the least frequent was questioning patient credibility (n = 51, 5%). After employing a semantic similarity-based search approach, 502 additional exemplars were added, increasing the number of low-frequency categories. All NLP models also showed improved performance, with Decision Trees demonstrating the greatest improvement (21%). ClinicalBERT outperformed other models, with the highest average F1-score of 0.78. Discussion: Clinical BERT seems to most effectively capture the nuanced and context-dependent stigmatizing language found in obstetric clinical notes, demonstrating its potential clinical applications for real-time monitoring and alerts to prevent usages of stigmatizing language use and reduce healthcare bias. Future research should explore stigmatizing language in diverse geographic locations and clinical settings to further contribute to high-quality and equitable perinatal care. Conclusion: ClinicalBERT effectively captures the nuanced stigmatizing language in obstetric clinical notes. Our semantic similarity-based search approach to rapidly extract additional exemplars enhanced the performances while reducing the need for labor-intensive annotation.