Environmental pressures on livelihood transformation in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta: Implications and adaptive pathways

Environmental pressures have significantly impacted agricultural land use in deltas worldwide, leading to transformative changes in livelihoods. The Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) is a vital region for national food security and global agricultural markets but is threatened by climate change, hydropower dams, sand mining, and excessive groundwater extraction. These pressures challenge the VMD's agricultural productivity and sustainability in the Anthropocene era. Despite efforts to foster resilience, there remains a critical gap in understanding how these agricultural transformations respond to environmental challenges. This review explores the multifaceted relationship between livelihood transformations and environmental pressures in the VMD, offering a comprehensive analysis of agricultural shifts over the past 50 years to identify viable adaptation pathways. Our review highlights that climate change-induced sea level rise and hydropower dam development both cause an increase in salinity intrusion, damage many agricultural lands and lead to substantial land use change and livelihood transformation, particularly in the floodplains and coastal areas. Additionally, sand mining has significantly influenced livelihood transitions in urban areas by causing riverbank erosion and leading to agricultural land losses. Furthermore, extensive groundwater extraction instigating land subsidence triggers land allocation, particularly in coastal zones. We emphasize the importance of adaptive management at both deltawide and farm-level scales, integrating stakeholder engagement with institutional improvements. This approach aims to address environmental impacts while pursuing a pathway incorporating nature-based solutions and smart technologies to enhance the sustainability of agricultural systems in the VMD under current and future environmental pressures. Our review provides a foundation for developing adaptive strategies that promote sustainable development and resilience in deltaic environments and share knowledge for similar deltas worldwide.