Assessment of phthalates in water matrices: a state-of-the-art review

Phthalates are high-production volume industrial chemicals used as plasticisers in polymers and additives in several consumer goods. Phthalates are ubiquitously present in the environmental compartments. This review aims to enhance the understanding of phthalate contamination in the water environment and support the development of effective monitoring strategies. This article reviews the sources and occurrence of phthalates in water environments, recent developments in analytical methods, emphasising innovative extraction techniques such as solid-phase microextraction, magnetic stir bar, hollow-fibre liquid-phase microextraction, and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction. Analytical methods using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry techniques are comprehensively reviewed. Strategies to minimise laboratory background contamination and optimise blank control are also discussed. The review critically evaluates existing knowledge and highlights key findings and implications for water quality assessment and management.