Integration of circadian rhythms and immunotherapy for enhanced precision in brain cancer treatment

Circadian rhythms significantly fi cantly impact (patho)physiological processes, with disruptions linked to neurodegenerative diseases and heightened cancer vulnerability. While immunotherapy has shown promise in treating various cancers, its efficacy fi cacy in brain malignancies remains limited. This review explores the nexus of circadian rhythms and immunotherapy in brain cancer treatment, emphasising precision through alignment with the body's ' s internal clock. We evaluate circadian regulation of immune responses, including cell localisation and functional phenotype, and discuss how circadian dysregulation affects anti-cancer immunity. Additionally, we analyse and assess the effectiveness of current immunotherapeutic approaches for brain cancer including immune checkpoint blockades, adoptive cellular therapies, and other novel strategies. Future directions, such as chronotherapy and personalised treatment schedules, are proposed to optimise immunotherapy precision against brain cancers. Overall, this review provides an understanding of the often-overlooked role of circadian rhythms in brain cancer and suggests avenues for improving immunotherapeutic outcomes. Copyright (c) 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).