Revisiting Self-Efficacy in Introductory Programming

For many years, the C++-based Computer Programming Self-Efficacy Scale by Ramalingam and Wiedenbeck has been the de facto standard for assessing self-efficacy in introductory programming. Since the development of this instrument, however, both the landscape as well as the intended audience of introductory programming courses has changed beyond the use of a particular programming language. We revisit this instrument and its factorization in light of curricular developments and research results regarding concepts and competences taught in introductory courses. We report on the development and validation of a new instrument that covers most paradigms and languages used in CS1 and present exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses across different populations. Our validation and factor analyses suggest that the new instrument indeed measures self-efficacy with an acceptable fit of the model. In contrast, the factorization of the Computer Programming Self-Efficacy Scale was found to be less robust. Nonetheless, and in line with self-efficacy theory, our analyses suggest that researchers should take into account the educational context of the study population when reporting or comparing results at the level of factors.