Cellulose-based 3D printing bio-inks for biomedical applications: A review

Cellulose is the most ubiquitous polymer found in nature. In recent years, cellulose derivatives of various kinds, such as cellulose esters and ethers, and nanocelluloses, have become popular bioprintable materials used for making bio-inks because of their affordability, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and printability. Nevertheless, the potential uses of nanocellulose and cellulose derivative-based bio-inks have not been thoroughly explored. This review emphasizes advancements in the design of cellulose-based bio-inks for 3D bioprinting of diverse tissues as well as the physicochemical attributes of cellulose derivatives and nanocellulose that make them a viable choice for bio-inks in 3D bioprinting. Additionally, cellulose bio-inks' current benefits and drawbacks in 3D printing are thoroughly examined. Various cross-linking approaches are offered for multicomponent cellulose and nanocellulose-based bio-inks to control the fidelity of the ink and alter the mechanical stiffness in the printed hydrogel construct as a bioactive cue. By emphasizing the interactions involving cells and the matrix, it additionally examines the effect of functional groups and surface charge on nanocellulose on vital cellular functions (including cell survival, adhesion, and proliferation). Thus, this review aims to offer an integrated platform for 3D bioprinting with cellulose-based materials for the biomedical industry.