A comprehensive and systemic review of the Gentiana: Ethnobotany, traditional applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology in the Mongolian Plateau

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Gentiana is the largest genus within the Gentianaceae family, comprising around 400 species that are widely distributed in temperate alpine regions worldwide, including the Mongolian Plateau. Despite their broad distribution, no comprehensive review on the distribution, ethnobotany, traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicology of Gentiana species in the Mongolian plateau. Aim: This paper aims to provide the first detailed summary of Gentiana species distributed in the Mongolian Plateau, including those in Mongolia. It comprehensively addresses their botanical characteristics, traditional applications, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and toxicity, of Gentiana, providing a scientific basis for further research and identifying gaps in knowledge. Materials and methods: Data were collected through a comprehensive survey of journal articles, books, and dissertations from databases such as Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, PubMed, Springer Link, CNKI, VIP, and Wan Fang Data. Additionally, online resources like Flora of China and Plants of the World Online were consulted for species distribution and scientific name verification. Phytochemical compounds were visualized using Chem Draw 14.0 software. Results: This review identifies twenty-nine Gentiana species distributed in the Mongolian Plateau, with nine species having documented folkloric uses for the treating digestive, skin, joint diseases, and sore throat, etc. Phytochemical studies have led to the isolation and identification of 602 compounds, including iridoids, triterpenoids, flavonoids, lignans, coumarins, xanthones, alkaloids, fatty acids, amino acids, organic acids, and polysaccharides. Notably, gentiopicroside (75) and swertiamarin (118) are the most studied monomeric compounds. Crude extracts of Gentiana show a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, such as antiinflammatory, analgesic, anti-bacterial, antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, immunomodulatory, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, neuroprotective, and joint and bone protective activities, etc. These extracts exhibit no apparent toxicity in vivo and in vitro studies. However, clinical research on the therapeutic applications of Gentiana remains limited. Conclusions: This review provides the first comprehensive summary of Gentiana species from the Mongolian Plateau, covering their distribution, morphology, phytochemistry, traditional uses, and pharmacological activities. Compared to existing literature, it offers a more thorough taxa, emphasizing key bioactive compounds such as gentiopicroside and swertiamarin, which are recognized for their anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects. The review also reveals the correlation between pharmacological activities and traditional applications. Furthermore, many Gentiana species remain underexplored, highlighting significant potential for future research and the development of therapeutic applications.