Integrity-centered framework for determining protected areas boundary: An application in the China's national park

National parks are critical components of protected areas and are drawing increased global attention. Clear and rational boundaries may provide a scientific foundation for the sustainable protection and management of these areas. However, criteria for feasible national park delimitation and techniques for resolving conflicts between socioeconomic development and environmental protection are still poorly defined, particularly regarding integrity during park establishment. Consequently, a systematic analytical framework is essential for advancing research and practice. This study developed a systematic framework to determine the spatial boundaries, using the Kunlun Mountain region in China as a case for empirical analysis. Key issues in national park development-ecology and management-were systematically integrated into this framework. Most importantly, spatial connectivity, a critical concern in national park planning, was thoroughly considered for improving integrity optimization, an aspect often overlooked in previous delimitation studies. The results demonstrated that our framework effectively identified potential national park boundaries, achieving a balance between development and conservation. Furthermore, core protected and general control areas were delineated to support differentiated management approaches. This framework offers a scientific foundation for policymakers and managers to pursue sustainable protection and management of national parks.