Past, current, and future re-use of recycled non-potable water sources in concrete applications to reduce freshwater consumption- a review

This paper systematically reviews published studies involving the recycling and reuse of alternative non-potable industrial and domestic wastewater, seawater, and oil-contaminated water sources in concrete, mortar, and cement paste applications. A summary of available industrial and domestic wastewater sources, their physical and chemical characteristics, optimum treatment methods is presented to provide additional context on potential future reuse of industrial and domestic water sources in concrete applications. Economic implications, gaps of knowledge, and future research needs are also discussed. There are several raw wastewater sources that are mostly aligned with standard water quality thresholds that may produce concrete on par with freshwater systems. In addition, developing specialized water treatments for concrete applications can improve performance, although the water remains non-potable (limited to only primary or secondary treatments).