Long-term synergies and trade-offs among ecosystem services for silvopasture management in temperate forests of Chapa de Mota (Mexico)

Silvopastoral systems in temperate forests have been suggested as a viable alternative to the unregulated presence of livestock in these ecosystems. However, there is a lack of information regarding their long-term implementation in providing ecosystem services. Compared to excluding grazing, this study aimed at determining externalities and interactions between different ecosystem services through the effects of long-term (similar to 25 years) implementation of a seasonal silvopastoral system on forage production, soil fertility, vegetation structure, and native plant abundance in a temperate forest in Mexico. The long-term implementation of a silvopastoral system favors the provision of provisioning, regulating, and supporting ecosystem services through increased forage production (+ 56%, P = 0.02), soil P content (+ 278%, P = 0.05), lower shrub and tree stratum (- 27 and - 70% respectively, P < 0.05) and lower topsoil bulk density (- 33%, P = 0.005). In addition, we found synergies between the herbaceous stratum with the soil's total nitrogen (P = 0.03) and organic carbon content (P = 0.01). On the other hand, there were trade-offs between shrub and herbaceous stratum (P < 0.001) and soil P content (P < 0.001). Our results highlight the importance of seasonal silvopasture as a viable practice for enhancing ecosystem productivity by increasing forage availability, herbaceous biomass, and soil fertility. The findings raise expectations for the application of silvopasture as a tool for sustainable temperate forest management.