Microplastics and pharmaceuticals from water and wastewater: Occurrence, impacts, and membrane bioreactor-based removal

Microplastics and residues of pharmaceutical active compounds are emerging micropollutants that find their way into aquatic environments, posing significant ecological threats. The abundance of microplastics in wastewater varied, reaching up to hundreds of items per liter. At the same time, pharmaceuticals are commonly detected in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents at levels ranging from nanograms to micrograms per liter (ng L- 1 to mu g L- 1). Exposure of aquatic organisms to these micropollutants can lead to various adverse effects, including oxidative damage, impaired growth and development, premature mortality, inflammatory responses, metabolic disorders, diminished immunity, decreased feeding activity, and behavioral changes. Their widespread distribution and persistence within ecosystems can lead to the release of these toxic substances into surface water and groundwater, causing environmental pollution, and posing risks to human health. The application of membrane bioreactors (MBRs) has shown high removal efficiencies, offering promising prospects for the future. Compared to conventional removal methods, the MBR-based solutions exhibited a significant improvement in microplastic and pharmaceutical removal efficiency (more than 90%) and delivered a superior final effluent quality. Nevertheless, there continues to be a significant challenge related to membrane fouling, which impacts the efficiency and performance of membrane-based systems. It is imperative to design new-generation solutions for removing these emerging micropollutants from various environmental matrices, such as wastewater, surface water, and groundwater, that are cost-effective and can aid in developing mitigation strategies for membrane fouling and applicable on a full scale. Researching eco-friendly approaches that offer advantages such as low cost, high efficiency, and non-toxicity is essential. Further, addressing the threat of microplastics and pharmaceuticals is crucial for ensuring ecological safety and human health. Strict regulations and proper management are necessary to control plastic use and mitigate these risks effectively.