Sampling, extraction, and analysis of micro- and nano-plastics in environmental and biological compartments: A review

Plastics are widely utilized in industry, agriculture and our daily life due to their low cost and high corrosion resistance, leading to substantial plastic waste in the environment. Under environmental stressors, plastics degrade into micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) with various size, shape, morphology and composition. However, detailed studies on the methods for collecting, treating, and detecting MNPs remain limited. Herein, the review firstly summarizes the sampling procedures of MNPs from environmental and biological compartments. Additionally, methods for the extraction and separation of MNPs are summarized and discussed, followed by a comprehensive overview of the detection methods used for MNPs identification and quantification. Finally, the establishment of standardized and unified methods for the separation, extraction, and identification of MNPs is prospected, providing guidance for systematic and advanced development of pollution survey and risk assessment of MNPs.