Recent advances in electrochemical biosensors for the detection of pathogens, diseases biomarkers, and heavy metal ions

The excessive usage of chemicals has resulted in environmental pollution worldwide leading to several health issues. The continuous rise in multidrug-resistance (MDR) pathogens is further challenging global health. The detection of these harmful chemicals, pathogens, and disease biomarkers is essential to combat these challenges. In this review, we describe different electrochemical biosensors to detect pathogens, disease biomarkers, and heavy metal ions (HMIs). The review has been devised in three parts. The first part involves discussion of different types of electrochemical biosensors for detecting MDR pathogens along with their mechanism of detection. The second part involves detection and monitoring of diabetes mellitus, cancer, and neurodegenerative diseases. The third part sheds light on the detection of heavy metal ions and monitoring of the environment. This review article has covered the literature based on different types of electrochemical biosensor, their working principles, mechanisms, and applications in detection of disease biomarkers, pathogens, and HMIs from 2017 to 2023.