Prediction of impulse waves generated by partially submerged landslides with a low Froude number based on prototype physical experiments

Impulse waves generated by landslides are a potential threat to reservoirs. Wave prediction formulas that can quickly assess the hazards and extent of landslide-induced waves are an important means for early warning and disaster prevention and mitigation. Partially submerged landslides often generate landslide waves with low Froude numbers. There is limited research on prediction formulas for such waves, and most studies focused on specific wave propagation stages rather than forming a comprehensive formula system. In this study, three typical low Froude number submerged landslides that occurred in the Baihetan reservoir were selected as prototypes, and a large-scale three-dimensional (3D) physical model experiment field with dimensions of 30 x 29.5 x 1.5 m(3) was constructed. A total of 95 experiments were performed. The entire process of impulse wave generation in the reservoir area was investigated by dividing the waves into four successive stages: initiation, rapid circular attenuation propagation, progressive attenuation propagation along the channel, and wave run-up. Based on a large amount of physical experimental data, formulas were derived for the maximum wave amplitude, propagation wave amplitude considering the degree of landslide submergence, and impulse wave run-up considering the shore slope orientation and ravine angle. These formulas were combined to form a comprehensive formula system to calculate the whole process of the impulse waves generated by the landslide in the narrow river channel with a wide influence range. The comprehensive formula system was applied to typical representative landslide experiments, and its accuracy was analyzed; the prediction accuracy ranged from 56% to 89.5%. This study can serve as a reference for assessing the risk of impulse waves generated by landslides in reservoir areas.