Development of new cathode materials for all-iron redox flow batteries using hard carbon-based composites containing niobium pentoxide

We report in this study new cathodes for all-Fe RFBs synthesized using carbon flakes dispersed in plasticizing and hardening agents to obtain hard and dense carbon (HC) materials in the absence and presence (HC-Nb) of niobium pentoxide (Nb2O5). These cathode materials exhibited excellent resistance to wear in acidic solutions and larger potential intervals for water stability (e.g., 1200-1300 mV) compared to conventional graphite (e.g., 800 mV). These characteristics decreased the parasitic occurrence of hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) using a laboratory-made battery cell during the charging process. The latter was based on the Fe-0/Fe2+ and Fe2+/Fe3+ redox couples present in the anode and cathode compartments, respectively. The different ex-situ and in-situ characterization studies evidenced that the presence of Nb2O5 in HCs substantially changed their physicochemical properties. The highest heterogenous kinetic rate constant (k(0)) representing the electrocatalytic activity for electron transfer was verified for the cathode containing 10 wt.% Nb2O5. An electromotive force (EMF) of 1.053 V was verified for the fully charged all-Fe RFB. Galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) studies revealed excellent coulombic efficiency (> 88 %) after 300 cycles. A pH control by acid addition as a function of the battery operation is necessary to avoid iron hydroxide formation on the anode's surface.