Stability and cavitation of nanobubble: Insights from large-scale atomistic molecular dynamics simulations

We perform large-scale atomistic simulations of a system containing 12 x 10(6) atoms, comprising an oxygen gas-filled bubble immersed in water, to understand the stability and cavitation induced by ultrasound. First, we propose a method to construct a bubble/water system. For a given bubble radius, the pressure inside the bubble is estimated using the Young-Laplace equation. Then, this pressure is used as a reference for a constant temperature, constant pressure simulation of an oxygen system, enabling us to extract a sphere of oxygen gas and place it into a cavity within an equilibrated water box. This ensures that the Young-Laplace equation is satisfied and the bubble is stable in water. Second, this stable bubble is used for ultrasound-induced cavitation simulations. We demonstrate that under weak ultrasound excitation, the bubble undergoes stable cavitation, revealing various fluid velocity patterns, including the first-order velocity field and microstreaming. These fluid patterns emerge around the bubble on a nanometer scale within a few nanoseconds, a phenomenon challenging to observe experimentally. With stronger ultrasound intensities, the bubble expands significantly and then collapses violently. The gas core of the collapsed bubble, measuring 3-4 nm, exhibits starfish shapes with temperatures around 1500 K and pressures around 6000 bar. The simulation results are compared with those from Rayleigh-Plesset equation modeling, showing good agreement. Our simulations provide insights into the stability and cavitation of nanosized bubbles.