Advancements in heterogeneous photocatalysts: from classical semiconductors to cutting-edge S-scheme systems

There has been a lot of focus on improving the photocatalytic performance and solar energy harvesting by photocatalysts. This mini-review explores the evolution of heterogeneous photocatalysts from classical semiconductor systems to advanced Z-scheme and S-scheme systems. We discuss the limitations of classical photocatalysts, the advantages of Z-scheme systems, and the emergence of S-scheme systems. We highlight key design strategies and fabrication techniques for optimizing photocatalytic performance. Finally, we address future prospects and challenges in this field. This review aims to shed light on the promising potential of these advanced photocatalytic systems for sustainable energy conversion. Type-II heterojunction photocatalysts perform reduction and oxidation on semiconductors with lower potentials.Z-scheme photocatalytic systems increase charge-separation effectiveness while retaining robust redox capacity.The S-scheme system was introduced to address the shortcomings of type II and Z-scheme photocatalysts.Several challenges still hinder the full potential of heterogeneous photocatalysts.