National environmental programs and local social-ecological system change in dryland China: implications for environmental governance

Interdependence of ecological and social systems is widely acknowledged, but consideration of how local communities are influenced by processes at other sectors or scales is often omitted. This research addresses this gap by examining the implementation of China's national environmental programs (NEPs) to combat desertification. We investigate (a) the changes in local social-ecological systems and the role of the NEPs therein since the year 2000; (b) how the changes have affected local livelihoods and behaviors and attitudes toward the NEPs and the land; and (c) the role of other drivers in the changes and their implications. Interviews and surveys were conducted with scientists, grassroots implementers, and local farmers and herders. Secondary socioeconomic data were used to understand broader changes and drivers. Our results indicate that the NEPs generated both positive and negative biophysical and socioeconomic changes, and that they were both supported and disrupted by institutions at other sectors and scales. Although farmers and herders appreciated an improved environment and living standards, they suffered from other changes, such as reduced arable land area, rising costs of living and production, precarious markets, and extreme weather events. Absence of social security and limited social capital made farmers and herders unable to engage in long-term practices that support land conservation and their well-being. The findings highlight the need to foster systemic resilience in local communities through the provision of social security and social capital building to navigate the changing world.