Is the development of diversification in executive functioning universal? Longitudinal evidence from Ghana

The component structure of executive functioning (EF) has been shown to change across development. Empirical research examining this in Sub-Saharan Africa is limited. We report the development of EF component structure with a large sample of Ghanaian children (n = 2,979) followed longitudinally from ages 3 through 12 across six waves. Existing literature suggests unitary models of EF (components loading onto a single factor) early in childhood, with development across childhood and into adolescence resulting in a more diversified EF model (components loading onto two- or three-factors). To test these developmental differences, participants completed EF batteries that measured EF components: working memory, short-term memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility/shifting. We employed confirmatory factor analysis to test factor models in 3- to 4-year-olds, 5- to 6-year-olds, 7- to 9-year-olds, and 10- to 12-year-olds. Contrary to existing literature, a two-factor EF model best explained EF performance as early as 3-4 years of age. Findings suggest that diversification of EF components may emerge earlier in childhood than expected in some contexts, questioning the universality in the timing of unification and diversification of EF structure.