10. Complex regional pain syndrome

Introduction: Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS) is a clinical disorder that can develop following surgery or trauma. Based on the most prominent underlying pathophysiological mechanisms, CRPS can be classified into different subtypes, namely inf lammatory, nociplastic/neuropathic, vasomotor, and motor. Depending on the subtype, personalized treatment can be applied. If conservative treatments are insufficient or ineffective, more invasive treatments may be recommended. This article provides an overview of the most recent insights into CRPS and discusses the most common invasive treatments. Methods: The literature regarding interventional treatments for CRPS has been systematically reviewed and summarized. Results: Bisphosphonates are effective in treating the inf lammatory subtype, while ketamine can provide pain relief for the nociplastic/neuropathic subtype. Sympathetic blocks are effective in addressing vasomotor disturbances. For patients with refractory symptoms, neurostimulation is a viable option due to its multimechanistic properties for all subtypes. End-of-line motor disturbances may benefit from intrathecal baclofen. Conclusions: CRPS is a debilitating condition with an unpredictable course. The effectiveness of treatment varies from patient to patient. When conservative approaches prove insufficient, gradual progression to invasive treatments based on the underlying subtype is recommended