The flower does not open in the city: evolution of plant reproductive traits of Portulaca oleracea in urban populations

Background and Aims The impact of urbanization on plant evolution, particularly the evolution of reproductive traits, remains largely unknown. In this study, we aimed to investigate the consequences of urbanization on the reproductive traits of Portulaca oleracea in the Kant & omacr; region of Japan. Portulaca oleracea has a unique cleistogamous reproductive system, which consists of genetically determined chasmogamous (open, CH) and cleistogamous (closed, CL) plants.Methods We collected seeds of P. oleracea from ten populations in rural areas and ten populations in urban areas. In a common garden experiment, we recorded the type of flowers (CH or CL), reproductive phenology and seed production.Key Results All individuals produced either CH or CL flowers, allowing us to classify them as either CH or CL plants. We observed a significant difference in the prevalence of CH and CL plants between rural and urban populations: the number of CH plants was generally low and was particularly low among urban individuals. Compared to CH plants, CL plants showed earlier phenology and produced heavier seeds, which is consistent with stress avoidance in response to heat and drought stress conditions in urban areas.Conclusions Our findings suggest that urbanization may drive an evolutionary change in the cleistogamous reproductive system of P. oleracea. CL plants with earlier phenology and larger seeds might be better adapted to urban environments, where they are subjected to harsh heat and drought stress.