Unboxing the network among long non-coding RNAs and TGF-β signaling in cancer

Deeper analysis of molecular mechanisms arising in tumor cells is an unmet need to provide new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies to prevent and treat tumors. The transforming growth factor 0 (TGF-0) signaling has been steadily featured in tumor biology and linked to poor prognosis of cancer patients. One pro-tumorigenic mechanism induced by TGF-0 is the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), which can initiate cancer dissemination, enrich the tumor stem cell population, and increase chemoresistance. TGF-0 signals via SMAD proteins, ubiquitin ligases, and protein kinases and modulates the expression of protein-coding and non-coding RNA genes, including those encoding larger than 500 nt transcripts, defined as long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs). Several reports have shown lncRNAs regulating malignant phenotypes by directly affecting epigenetic processes, transcription, and post-transcriptional regulation. Thus, this review aims to update and summarize the impact of TGF-0 signaling on the expression of lncRNAs and the function of such lncRNAs as regulators of TGF-0 signaling, and how these networks might impact specific hallmarks of cancer.