Development and predictors of reading skills in a 5-year Italian longitudinal study

Limited longitudinal studies have explored the development of reading, along with its predictors, in a language characterized by shallow orthography and a simple syllabic structure. In a 5-year longitudinal study, we investigated the development of reading skills in 327 Italian-speaking children (male: n = 180, 55%) from Grade 1 (mean age = 6.16 +/- 0.28) to Grade 5 (mean age = 10.82 +/- 0.31). We tested their reading performance at the end of each school year (Grade 1-5) and examined the impact of early cognitive factors (phonological awareness-PA, verbal short-term memory-vSTM, and non-verbal intelligence), environmental factors (socioeconomic status) as well as Grade 1 reading proficiency on subsequent reading development. A linear development of reading skills was found in both children classified as typical readers and those with reading disabilities. Non-verbal intelligence, PA, vSTM and reading proficiency at the end of Grade 1 predicted reading development throughout primary school (reading speed: R2-Intercept = 61.8%; R2-Slope = 12.9%, and reading accuracy: R2-Intercept = 40.1%; R2-Slope = 22.2%). The stability of reading performance across school grades highlights the significance of early reading skills as a marker and target for early intervention programs.Highlights To investigate reading development throughout primary school in an Italian-speaking sample, and the impact of early cognitive and environmental predictors. Reading development was linear and predicted by early cognitive skills, as assessed by repeated measures ANOVAs and growth curve modelling. These findings highlight the importance of supporting reading development as early as the end of Grade 1.