Global incidence and mortality of severe fungal disease

Current estimates of fungal disease incidence and mortality are imprecise. Population at risk denominators were used to estimate annual incidence for 2019-21. Extensive literature searches from 2010 to 2023 were combined with over 85 papers on individual country and global disease burden. Crude and attributable mortality were estimated using a combination of untreated mortality, the proportion of patients who are treated, and percentage survival in treated patients. Awareness, guidelines, and accessibility of diagnostics and therapies informed the ratio of treated to untreated cases. Estimates do not include influenza or COVID-19 outbreaks. Data from more than 120 countries were included. Annually, over 2 113 000 people develop invasive aspergillosis in the context of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, intensive care, lung cancer, or haematological malignancy, with a crude annual mortality of 1 801 000 (85<middle dot>2%). The annual incidence of chronic pulmonary aspergillosis is 1 837 272, with 340 000 (18<middle dot>5%) deaths. About 1 565 000 people have a Candida bloodstream infection or invasive candidiasis each year, with 995 000 deaths (63<middle dot>6%). Pneumocystis pneumonia affects 505 000 people, with 214 000 deaths (42<middle dot>4%). Cryptococcal meningitis affects 194 000 people, with 147 000 deaths (75<middle dot>8%). Other major life-threatening fungal infections affect about 300 000 people, causing 161 000 deaths (53<middle dot>7%). Fungal asthma affects approximately 11<middle dot>5 million people and might contribute to 46 000 asthma deaths annually. These updated estimates suggest an annual incidence of 6<middle dot>5 million invasive fungal infections and 3<middle dot>8 million deaths, of which about 2<middle dot>5 million (68%; range 35-90) were directly attributable.