Determinants of smallholder farmers' adaptation to the effects of climate extremes: evidence from Legambo district in northcentral Ethiopia

In Ethiopia's drought-prone regions, vulnerable smallholder rural communities' farming systems are seriously threatened by climate change and extreme weather events. It is crucial to understand the adaptations of these farmers and the factors that influence their adaptation strategies to design effective strategies and interventions for agricultural development and food security. The study examines the adaptation responses of smallholder farmers and the factors that influence their adaptation strategies. Using a questionnaire and key informant interviews, a cross-sectional survey research design was employed to collect data from 349 randomly selected smallholder farmers. Data analysis used percentages, a Weighted Adaptation Index (WAI), a Coping Strategy Index (CSI), and a binary logistic regression model. Climate change and variability manifest in the study area in the form of irregular patterns of rainfall (86.8%), drying-up of swampy areas (84%), reduction in the volume of rivers and streams (80.8%), unforeseen human and animal diseases (80.8%) and increase of drought incidences (80.2%). The most common coping strategies employed are selling assets (1.9), temporal migration (1.7), sending family members abroad for remittance (1.6), food aid (1.6), and borrowing from relatives (1.6). The study uncovered that the farmers utilized the most adaptation strategies of contour ploughing (2.38), water diversion (2.12), crop rotation (1.87), altering the farm calendar (1.72), on-farm livelihood diversification (1.66), using improved seed (1.59), using short maturing and drought-resistant crop varieties (1.34). Variations in educational level, age, family size, agroecology, cropping season, and access to weather information were the major determinant factors for undertaking adaptation measures in the district. Financial constraints (97.4%), shortage of water for irrigation (97.1%), absence of timely input supply (96.8%), and low awareness regarding climate change impacts and adaptation (96%) did respondents identify the significant constraints. Initiatives to assist smallholder farmers to better cope with climate change-induced extreme events, like the construction of reliable irrigation schemes, non-farm livelihood alternatives, livelihood diversification, and timely information, should be more embedded in the local context of farmers' decision-making.