Scaffold tissue engineering strategies for volumetric muscle loss

Volumetric muscle loss (VML) refers to a composite, en bloc loss of skeletal muscle mass resulting in functional impairment. These injuries normally heal with excessive fibrosis, minimal skeletal muscle regeneration, and poor functional recovery. Functional muscle transfer is a treatment option for some patients but is limited both by the degree of functional restoration as well as donor site morbidity. As such, new therapeutic options are necessary. De novo regeneration of skeletal muscle, by way of tissue engineering, is an emerging strategy to treat VML. This review evaluates available scaffolds for promoting skeletal muscle regeneration and functional recovery following VML. The use of growth factors and stem cell therapies, which may augment scaffold integration and skeletal muscle reconstitution, are also discussed. Regenerative medicine with the use of scaffolds is a promising area in skeletal muscle reconstruction and VML treatment.