Kai-Xin-San ameliorates Alzheimer ' s disease-related neuropathology and cognitive impairment in APP/PS1 mice via the mitochondrial autophagy-NLRP3 inflammasome pathway

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Kai-Xin-San (KXS) is a classic famous prescription that has been utilized for centuries to address dementia. New investigations have shown that the anti -dementia effect of KXS is connected with improved neuroinflammation. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanism is not well elucidated. Aim of the study: We propose to discover the ameliorative impact of KXS on Alzheimer 's disease (AD) and its regulatory role on the mitochondrial autophagy-nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome pathway. Materials and methods: The Y maze, Morris water maze, and new objection recognition tests were applied to ascertain the spatial learning and memory capacities of amyloid precursor protein/presenilin 1 (APP/PS1) mice after KXS-treatment. Meanwhile, the biochemical indexes of the hippocampus were detected by reagent kits. The pathological alterations and mitochondrial autophagy in the mice ' hippocampus were detected utilizing hematoxylin and eosin (H &E), immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence staining, and transmission electron microscopy. Besides, the PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1)/Parkin and NLRP3 inflammasome pathways protein expressions were determined employing the immunoblot analysis. Results: The results of behavioral tests showed that KXS significantly enhanced the AD mice ' spatial learning and memory capacities. Furthermore, KXS reversed the biochemical index levels and reduced amyloid- beta protein deposition in AD mice brains. Besides, H &E staining showed that KXS remarkably ameliorated the neuronal damage in AD mice. Concurrently, the results of transmission electron microscopy suggest that KXS ameliorated the mitochondrial damage in microglia and promoted mitochondrial autophagy. Moreover, the immunofluorescence outcomes exhibited that KXS promoted the expression of protein 1 light chain 3B (LC3B) associated with microtubule and the generation of autophagic flux. Notably, the immunofluorescence co -localization results confirmed the presence of mitochondrial autophagy in microglia. Finally, KXS promoted the protein expressions of the PINK1/Parkin pathway and reduced the activation of NLRP3 inflammasome. Most importantly, these beneficial effects of KXS were attenuated by the mitochondrial autophagy inhibitor chloroquine.