Review of low-cost light sources and miniaturized designs in photoacoustic microscopy

Significance: Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) is a promising imaging technique to provide structural, functional, and molecular information for preclinical and clinical studies. However, expensive and bulky lasers and motorized stages have limited the broad applications of conventional PAM systems. A recent trend is to use low-cost light sources and miniaturized designs to develop a compact PAM system and expand its applications from benchtop to bedside. Aim: We provide (1) an overview of PAM systems and their limitations, (2) a comprehensive review of PAM systems with low-cost light sources and their applications, (3) a comprehensive review of PAM systems with miniaturized and handheld scanning designs, and (4) perspective applications and a summary of the cost-effective and miniaturized PAM systems. Approach: Papers published before July 2023 in the area of using low-cost light sources and miniaturized designs in PAM were reviewed. They were categorized into two main parts: (1) low-cost light sources and (2) miniaturized or handheld designs. The first part was classified into two subtypes: pulsed laser diode and continuous-wave laser diode. The second part was also classified into two subtypes: galvanometer scanner and micro-electro-mechanical system scanner. Results: Significant progress has been made in the development of PAM systems based on low-cost and compact light sources as well as miniaturized and handheld designs. Conclusions: The review highlights the potential of these advancements to revolutionize PAM technology, making it more accessible and practical for various applications in preclinical studies, clinical practice, and long-term monitoring. (c) The Authors. Published by SPIE under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Distribution or reproduction of this work in whole or in part requires full attribution of the original publication, including its DOI.