Gliotoxin elicits immunotoxicity in the early innate immune system of ducks

Gliotoxin (GT) belongs to the epipolythiodioxopiperazine (ETP) family, which is considered a crucial virulence determinant among the secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus fumigatus . The metabolites are commonly found in food and feed, contributing to the invasion and immune escape of Aspergillus fumigatus , thereby posing a signi ficant threat to the health of livestock, poultry, and humans. Heterophil extracellular traps (HETs), a novel form of innate immune defense, have been documented in the chicken 's innate immune systems for capturing and eliminating invading microbes. However, the effects and mechanisms of GT on the production of duck HETs in vitro remain unknown. In this study, we first con firmed the presence of HETs in duck innate immune systems and further investigated the molecular mechanism underlying GTinduced HETs release. Our results demonstrate that GT can trigger typical release of HETs in duck. The structures of GT-induced HETs structures were characterized by DNA decoration, citrullinated histones 3, and elastase. Furthermore, NADPH oxidase, glycolysis, ERK 1/2 and p38 signaling pathway were found to regulate GTinduced HETs. In summary, our findings reveal that gliotoxin activates HETs release in the early innate immune system of duck while providing new insights into the immunotoxicity of GT towards ducks.