Enhancing precision of root-zone soil moisture content prediction in a kiwifruit orchard using UAV multi-spectral image features and ensemble learning

Accurate and real -time monitoring of soil moisture content (SMC) is of utmost importance for effective field irrigation and maximizing crop water productivity. However, a comprehensive investigation into the inversion study for determining suitable combinations of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) image features and enhancing the precision of SMC model prediction has yet to be fully validated within a kiwifruit orchard setting. This study addresses this gap by employing a pre-processing method and an optimal band combination algorithm to assess the impact of various combinations of kiwifruit canopy reflectance and fraction vegetation coverage (FVC) features on the sensitivity of root-zone SMC. Furthermore, an optimal ensemble learning (EL) framework was developed to monitor SMC at various root-zone depths (0-10 cm [SMC10], 0-20 cm [SMC20], 0-30 cm [SMC30], 0-40 cm [SMC40], 0-50 cm [SMC50], 0-60 cm [SMC60]). The key findings of this research highlight the successful derivation of 10 wavebands and FVC features, exhibiting a strong correlation with SMC at different root depths. The gradient boosting (GBDT) model demonstrated the exceptional accuracy in estimating SMC10, with an impressive R 2 value of 0.963 +/- 0.030 and low RMSE values of 0.238 +/- 0.111. Similarly, the eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) model outperformed in estimating SMC20 to SMC60, with R 2 and RMSE values of 0.963 +/- 0.024 and 0.117 +/- 0.053, respectively. Additionally, the utilization of the optimal EL model allows for digital mapping of SMC at different depths across fruit growth stages, showcasing superior adaptability for SMC30 to SMC60 (with R 2 and RMSE of 0.782 +/- 0.090 and 0.037 +/- 0.011) compared to SMC10 and SMC20 (with R 2 and RMSE of 0.765 +/- 0.097 and 0.056 +/- 0.024). These results underscore the potential of the EL estimation framework in characterizing the spatial distribution of root-zone SMC at the individual kiwifruit plant level.