Conceptual diversity and application of ecosystem services and disservices: A systematic review

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment report was a milestone that placed the concepts of Ecosystem Services (ES) and Disservices (EDS) on the research and policy agenda. Since then, several gaps in these frameworks have limited their effectivity, including a conceptual ambiguity and the questioning of aspects reflected in the coproduction, provision, and maintenance of ES/EDS, making it difficult to generate greater interaction and understanding of scientific work. We jointly address ES/EDS from a conceptual approach, providing an analysis of the definitions and typologies available in the literature between 2000 and 2024 that included the terms "ecosystem services" AND "ecosystem disservices." We analyzed 297 studies based on 15 evaluation criteria. Our findings underscore the importance of delimiting the ecological processes that give rise to ES/EDS and the social phenomena that influence how they are perceived and appropriated. Both concepts were recognized as multifaceted, with diverse meanings that in some cases hinder the clarity with which different messages are communicated. These concepts hold the potential for bringing a more pluralistic view of the human-nature relationship into decision-making. We warn of the risks associated with minimizing the need for academic consensus in the identification of ES/EDS, especially as it may lead to risky management practices that affect ecosystems.