A review of microcystin and nodularin toxins derived from freshwater cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms and their impact on human health

The impacts of climate change on cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cHABs) are paramount, promoting the widespread distribution, intensity, and toxicity of these phenomena in major freshwater bodies across the globe. Microcystins (MCs) and nodularins (NODs) are monocyclic peptides that produce hepatotoxic effects in living organisms. Despite efforts in understanding their molecular toxicological mechanisms, we do not fully have a grasp on the human health impacts associated with these toxins derived from freshwater cHABs. We seek to provide a current update on the toxicity and epidemiology of MCs and NODs, integrating key evidence from in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological studies. The primary objective of this work is to understand the human health impacts of MC and NOD-producing cHABs.