A Review on 3D Printing Processes in Pharmaceutical Engineering and Tissue Engineering: Applications, Trends and Challenges

As a 3D rapid prototyping technology, 3D printing (3DP) technology has been widely applied in medical research, fabricating various medical devices or implants. With the development of biomaterials and cell-related technologies, 3DP, especially bioprinting technology, is quietly bringing great changes and opportunities in the medical industry. Beyond surgical models, medical devices, and implants, traditional 3DP, cell-based 3D bioprinting, and emerging 4D printing (4DP) have significantly aided in the advancement and manufacture of pharmaceuticals and biological alternatives for tissue engineering. It is envisioned that future healthcare systems, based on evolving 3DP technology and precision medicine, will deliver customized solutions that cater to the unique differences and needs of each patient. In this review work, several mainstream 3D bioprinting technologies are presented, with a focus on recent advances in 3DP for pharmaceutical engineering and important tissue engineering, including vascular and bone tissue engineering. Challenges and future prospects of 3DP for drug discovery, drug delivery systems, artificial blood vessels, vascular and bone tissue engineering scaffolds, and practical applications are also covered. Finally, the differences between 3DP and 4DP, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of different stimulus response mechanisms in 4DP and their potential applications are summarized. Advancements in 3D printing and biomedical materials, including stem cells, functional composites, and stimulus-responsive materials, have greatly expanded their application in pharmaceutical and tissue engineering. This review explores their applications, challenges, and potential strategies in areas such as drug screening and preclinical studies, personalized drug delivery, small-diameter artificial blood vessels, perfusable vascular network stents, and vascularized bone tissue engineering scaffolds. image