Two-step machine learning-assisted label-free surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy for reliable prediction of dissolved furfural in transformer oil

Accurate detection of dissolved furfural in transformer oil is crucial for real-time monitoring of the aging state of transformer oil -paper insulation. While label -free surface -enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has demonstrated high sensitivity for dissolved furfural in transformer oil, challenges persist due to poor substrate consistency and low quantitative reliability. Herein, machine learning (ML) algorithms were employed in both substrate fabrication and spectral analysis of label -free SERS. Initially, a high -consistency Ag@Au substrate was prepared through a combination of experiments, particle swarm optimization -neural network (PSO-NN), and a hybrid strategy of particle swarm optimization and genetic algorithm (Hybrid PSO-GA). Notably, a two-step ML framework was proposed, whose operational mechanism is classification followed by quantification. The framework adopts a hierarchical modeling strategy, incorporating simple algorithms such as kernel support vector machine (Kernel-SVM), k -nearest neighbors (KNN), etc., to independently establish lightweight regression models on each cluster, which allows each model to focus more effectively on fitting the data within its cluster. The classification model achieved an accuracy of 100%, while the regression models exhibited an average correlation coefficient (R 2 ) of 0.9953 and the root mean square errors (RMSE) consistently below 10 -2 . Thus, this ML framework emerges as a rapid and reliable method for detecting dissolved furfural in transformer oil, even in the presence of different interfering substances, which may also have potentiality for other complex mixture monitoring systems.