From wastewater to clean water: Recent advances on the removal of metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, and sulfamethoxazole antibiotics from water through adsorption and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)

Antibiotics released into water sources pose significant risks to both human health and the environment. This comprehensive review meticulously examines the ecotoxicological impacts of three prevalent antibiotics - ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and sulfamethoxazole - on the ecosystems. Within this framework, our primary focus revolves around the key remediation technologies: adsorption and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). In this context, an array of adsorbents is explored, spanning diverse classes such as biomass -derived biosorbents, graphene-based adsorbents, MXene-based adsorbents, silica gels, carbon nanotubes, carbon -based adsorbents, metal -organic frameworks (MOFs), carbon nanofibers, biochar, metal oxides, and nanocomposites. On the flip side, the review meticulously examines the main AOPs widely employed in water treatment. This includes a thorough analysis of ozonation (O 3 ), the photo -Fenton process, UV/hydrogen peroxide (UV/H 2 O 2 ), TiO 2 photocatalysis, ozone/UV (O 3 /UV), radiation -induced AOPs, and sonolysis. Furthermore, the review provides in-depth insights into equilibrium isotherm and kinetic models as well as prospects and challenges inherent in these cutting -edge processes. By doing so, this review aims to empower readers with a profound understanding, enabling them to determine research gaps and pioneer innovative treatment methodologies for water contaminated with antibiotics.