Military education in extended reality (XR): learning troublesome knowledge through immersive experiential application

Extended reality (XR) applications for education are usually associated with motivation, engagement, knowledge and experiences that are difficult to achieve in the real world. One example of such knowledge in military education is the threat-based approach to protection of civilians in armed conflicts. The Norwegian Defence University College (NDUC) educates officers on the threat-based approach. This approach challenges conventional military practice, introducing new ways of thinking about what military forces can and cannot do to protect civilians from violence. Today, militaries are expected to protect civilians from perpetrators that target them as part of their warfare, expanding their responsibilities under International Humanitarian Law. This expansion of tasks represents "troublesome knowledge" for many military officers and demands a deeper understanding of the rationales and strategies driving perpetrators' targeting of civilians. To overcome this pedagogical challenge, we developed an XR-supported educational program combining immersive experiences and pedagogical approaches, including combined 360 degrees-videos and embodiment, dialogue with virtual humans and collaborative VR-landscapes to encourage immersive peer-to-peer learning. The results are encouraging, suggesting high levels of acceptance by learners of the threat-based concept, an effect on stimulating critical discussion and a positive reaction to XR-supported learning.