Potentials and hotspots of post-lithium-ion batteries: Environmental impacts and supply risks for sodium- and potassium-ion batteries

Lithium -ion batteries (LIBs) currently have the dominant market share in rechargeable batteries, a key technology reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, concerns regarding the environmental impacts of manufacturing and requirements for critical resources result in the need for developing alternative battery technologies as well as improving LIBs. This study assessed environmental impacts and supply risks associated with three post-LIBs, namely two sodium -ion batteries (NMMT and NTO) and one potassium -ion battery (KFSF), and three LIBs (NMC, LFP, and LTO) using life cycle assessment and criticality assessment. Post-LIBs showed comparable environmental performances and lower supply risks compared with LIBs. The environmental hotspots were NiSO4 production for cathode for NMMT and NMC, and TiO2 production for anode for NTO and LTO. KFSF anode and cathode had no significant environmental impacts, achieving the best performance. LIBs had higher supply risks than the other batteries, mainly attributed to Li and Co used as electrode constituents.