Performance evaluation of deep learning based stream nitrate concentration prediction model to fill stream nitrate data gaps at low-frequency nitrate monitoring basins

Accurate and frequent nitrate estimates can provide valuable information on the nitrate transport dynamics. The study aimed to develop a data -driven modeling framework to estimate daily nitrate concentrations at lowfrequency nitrate monitoring sites using the daily nitrate concentration and stream discharge information of a neighboring high -frequency nitrate monitoring site. A Long Short -Term Memory (LSTM) based deep learning (DL) modeling framework was developed to predict daily nitrate concentrations. The DL modeling framework performance was compared with two well-established statistical models, including LOADEST and WRTDSKalman, in three selected basins in Iowa, USA: Des Moines, Iowa, and Cedar River. The developed DL model performed well with NSE >0.70 and KGE >0.70 for 67% and 79% nitrate monitoring sites, respectively. DL and WRTDS-Kalman models performed better than the LOADEST in nitrate concentration and load estimation for all low-frequency sites. The average NSE performance of the DL model in daily nitrate estimation is 20% higher than that of the WRTDS-Kalman model at 18 out of 24 sites (75%). The WRTDS-Kalman model showed unrealistic fluctuations in the estimated daily nitrate time series when the model received limited observed nitrate data (less than 50) for simulation. The DL model indicated superior performance in winter months' nitrate prediction (60% of cases) compared to WRTDS-Kalman models (33% of cases). The DL model also better represented the exceedance days from the USEPA maximum contamination level (MCL). Both the DL and WRTDS-Kalman models demonstrated similar performance in annual stream nitrate load estimation, and estimated values are close to actual nitrate loads.