Chemical composition and origins of PM 2.5 in Chiang Mai (Thailand) by integrated source apportionment and potential source areas

Upper Southeast Asian region lacks source apportionment studies of air pollution, particularly PM2.5, despite its persistence. This study aims to quantify PM2.5 source contributions and identify their potential source areas in urban Chiang Mai (Thailand) as a representative of the region, using the positive matrix factorization (PMF) receptor model and the potential source contribution function (PSCF). A total of 51 samples were collected and analyzed for water-soluble ions, organic carbon, elemental carbon, carbohydrates, carboxylates, and metals. An average PM2.5 concentration of 116 +/- 35 and 35 +/- 6 mu g m(-3) was found during smoke-haze (SH) and non-smoke-haze (NSH) periods, respectively. The average PMF-resolved contributions to PM2.5 in the SH period were the following: biomass burning (59.3 mu g m(-3)) > secondary sulfate (26.2 mu g m(-3)) > dust (16.1 mu g m(-3)) > traffic (14.6 mu g m(-3)). In contrast, those in the NSH period were the following: traffic (27.2 mu g m(-3)) > dust (5.9 mu g m-3) > biomass burning (2.5 mu g m(-3)). The PSCF revealed that biomass burning has the main potential source area along the Thai-Myanmar border, while the secondary sulfate largely originated in Indian continent. Local pollution from traffic and dust contributed consistently but was minor in comparison. The source composition exhibited major seasonal change because of the lack of biomass burning and transboundary pollution in the wet season, where exhaust and non-exhaust traffic emissions became the main contributors. These findings offer insights into how regional PM2.5 affects the local pollution in the urban atmosphere.