Russia provides interesting material to test Eisentadt's hypothesis of 'multiple modernities' and the idea that such alleged 'multiplicity' is determined by the differences of religious traditions. I argue that in Russia all attempts at modernization, starting from Peter the Great and including its Soviet version, were oriented towards the western 'cultural program of modernity', as an ideal type, rather than toward creating some special 'Russian pattern' of it. I also believe that secularism has always been and continues to be an inalienable part of this 'western modernity', and therefore, in Russia, all Christian Orthodox discourses and religiously-inspired movements led not so much to the encoding of modernity with some special religious meanings, but rather to implicit modernization, or adaptation of religion itself-even in spite of Russian Orthodoxy's explicitly anti-modern posture. Overall, my perception is that some widespread interpretations of Eisenstadt's idea go a way too far towards emphasizing multiplicity, and that the concept of 'postsecular' should be used very cautiously.
