The Evolution of Equality: Rethinking Variability and Egalitarianism Among Modern Forager Societies

Using hunter-gatherer societies as a focus, we argue for a heuristic continuum of egalitarian social systems ranging between relatively strong and weak forms. Weak egalitarianism is characterized by an absence of real political hierarchy, and limited differences between individuals in terms of rank, status, wealth, or power, while strongly egalitarian societies are characterized by these with some combination of powerful sharing and leveling norms, extensive formal networks of reciprocity spanning geographical regions, assertive social mechanisms of norm enforcement, and ritual practices designed to alleviate resulting social tensions. While weak forms of egalitarianism may result from some long-recognized properties of mobile foraging societies, such as group membership flexibility and universal access to both means of economic production and the means of coercion, we argue that strong egalitarianism emerged as a social strategy for coping with foraging risk at larger temporal and spatial scales. We conclude with a synthesis of ethnoarchaeological and archaeological approaches in the examination of the prehistory of egalitarianism, as well as a brief consideration of potential evolutionarily implications.